Two key psychological views permeated 20th-century perspectives on the human mind. First, Freud and his followers posited that early emotional experiences interact with biological drives to create confl ict, defense, and psychological symptoms. Second, beginning with Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner, social learning perspectives have emphasized the shaping of behavior through environmental
contingencies, focusing on “laws” of learned behavior. Finally, we address the various levels of consciousness in humans, encountering a core mystery in the study of the mind: the nature of human awareness and self-consciousness.
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